Detrimental role of prolonged sleep deprivation on adult neurogenesis

One more thing you'll have to make sure your doctor is taking care of for you. You want lots of neurogenesis. What exactly is your doctors' protocol to accomplish that? No protocol? Then call the hospital president and ask why they are employing incompetent doctors.
Excuses like 'All strokes are different, all stroke recoveries are different' ARE NOT ALLOWED.
http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fncel.2015.00140/full?
Carina Fernandes^1,2, Nuno Barbosa F. Rocha³, Susana Rocha⁴, Andrea Herrera-Solís⁵, José Salas-Pacheco⁶, Fabio García-García⁷, Eric Murillo-Rodríguez⁸, Ti-Fei Yuan⁹, Sergio Machado^10,11 and Oscar Arias-Carrión^5*

• ¹Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
• ²Laboratory of Neuropsychophysiology, Faculty of Psychology and Education Sciences, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
• ³School of Health Technologies, Polytechnic Institute of Porto, Porto, Portugal
• ⁴School of Accounting and Administration of Porto, Polytechnic Institute of Porto, Porto, Portugal
• ⁵Unidad de Trastornos del Movimiento y Sueño, Hospital General Dr. Manuel Gea González/Instituto de Fisiología Celular, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City, Mexico
• ⁶Instituto de Investigación Científica, Universidad Juárez del Estado de Durango, Durango, Mexico
• ⁷Departamento de Biomedicina, Instituto de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Veracruzana, Xalapa, Mexico
• ⁸División Ciencias de la Salud, Laboratorio de Neurociencias Moleculares e Integrativas, Escuela de Medicina, Universidad Anáhuac Mayab, Mérida, México
• ⁹School of Psychology, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, China
• ¹⁰Panic and Respiration, Institute of Psychiatry of Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
• ¹¹Physical Activity Neuroscience, Physical Activity Sciences Postgraduate Program, Salgado de Oliveira University, Niterói, Brazil

Adult mammalian brains continuously generate new neurons, a phenomenon called adult neurogenesis. Both environmental stimuli and endogenous factors are important regulators of adult neurogenesis. Sleep has an important role in normal brain physiology and its disturbance causes very stressful conditions, which disrupt normal brain physiology. Recently, an influence of sleep in adult neurogenesis has been established, mainly based on sleep deprivation studies. This review provides an overview on how rhythms and sleep cycles regulate hippocampal and subventricular zone neurogenesis, discussing some potential underlying mechanisms. In addition, our review highlights some interacting points between sleep and adult neurogenesis in brain function, such as learning, memory, and mood states, and provides some insights on the effects of antidepressants and hypnotic drugs on adult neurogenesis.

Introduction

Thousands of new neurons are daily added to the adult brain of different species, including humans (Yuan et al., 2014), and this constant lifelong generation implies significant structural changes (Eriksson et al., 1998; Curtis et al., 2007). Neurogenesis is involved in numerous brain processes but its association with sleep deprivation was only recently addressed. Previous research has focused on how generation and development of new neurons are affected by sleep loss. Short periods of sleep deprivation do not significantly alter the basal rate of cell proliferation, whereas long periods result in a decrease of cell proliferation and survival in the hippocampus (Mirescu et al., 2006). In this review, we will discuss the possible effects of sleep deprivation on the natural course of neurogenesis, and address the potential connections between sleep and neurogenesis that may influence other cognitive and neuropsychobiological functions, such as learning, memory, and mood disorders.

Adult Neurogenesis

Neurogenesis includes the generation, proliferation, fate specification and integration of new functional neurons in the existing neural circuits from undifferentiated progenitor cells. Traditionally, it was believed that neurogenesis mainly occurred during the embryonic stages of the central nervous system (CNS), ending permanently at puberty (Ming and Song, 2005; Meerlo et al., 2009).

New findings, based on techniques such as [³H]-thymidine autoradiography (Sidman et al., 1959) and 5-bromo-2^′-deoxyuridine (BrdU; Nowakowski et al., 1989), which mark cells in S phase of mitosis, electronic microscopy (Kaplan, 1977, 1981, 1984, 1985) and combining retroviral-based lineage tracing with electrophysiological methods (Sanes et al., 1986; Price et al., 1987) revealed the continuous adult neurogenesis and synaptic integration. Newborn neurons were found in certain CNS regions of birds (Goldman and Nottebohm, 1983), rats (van Praag et al., 1999), monkeys (Kornack and Rakic, 1999), and humans (Eriksson et al., 1998; Curtis et al., 2007), throughout life.

Neurogenesis occurs in specific areas of the CNS, namely in the subventricular zone (SVZ), lining the wall of the lateral ventricles, and in the subgranular zone (SGZ) of the hippocampal dentate gyrus (Alvarez-Buylla and Lim, 2004). The neurogenic behavior of these areas appears to be determined by signals of endothelial cells and astrocytes (Alvarez-Buylla and Lim, 2004).

Similarly, a cohort of glucogenic and neurogenic signals (Lim et al., 2000) regulates the underlying molecular mechanisms of neuronal differentiation, fate specification (Ming and Song, 2005; Arias-Carrión et al., 2007; Yuan and Arias-Carrion, 2011; Höglinger et al., 2014) and migration of new generated cells (Hu et al., 1996; Conover et al., 2000; Murase and Horwitz, 2002; Bolteus and Bordey, 2004). Newly formed neurons in the SVZ reach the olfactory bulb, by the rostral migratory stream (Saghatelyan et al., 2004), forming granule and periglomerular neurons. These neurons establish dendro-dendritic synapses with tufted cells (Abrous et al., 2005), beginning a maturation process by receiving GABAergic and glutamatergic synaptic inputs (Belluzzi et al., 2003). When maturate, the granule neurons secrete GABA, while periglomerular neurons secrete GABA and dopamine (Wang et al., 2000; Arias-Carrión et al., 2007). In the dentate gyrus, newborn neurons reach the anterior layer of the granule cells (Hastings and Gould, 1999), maintaining their neuronal maturation and synaptogenesis over several months (van Praag et al., 2002). It is believed that these neurons receive initially GABAergic and later glutamatergic inputs (Ming and Song, 2005). Once mature, most of these neurons secrete glutamate, while a small population releases GABA (Wang et al., 2000).

Adult neurogenesis is modulated by intrinsic and extrinsic factors (Table 1), being possible that several modulating factors remain unknown (Kempermann, 2002).

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